Nobel laureates: Max Planck. The most constant of physicists. Max Planck short biography Max Planck short biography

The outstanding French mathematician A. Poincaré wrote: “Planck’s quantum theory is, without any doubt, the largest and most profound revolution that natural philosophy has undergone since the time of Newton.”

Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born on April 23, 1858 in the Prussian city of Kiel, in the family of professor of civil law Johann Julius Wilhelm von Planck and Emma (nee Patzig) Planck.

In 1867 the family moved to Munich. Planck later recalled: “I spent my youth happily in the company of my parents and sisters.” At the Royal Maximilian Classical Gymnasium, Max studied well. His bright mathematical abilities were also revealed early: in middle and high school it became a custom that he replaced sick mathematics teachers. Planck recalled the lessons of Hermann Müller, “a sociable, insightful, witty man who knew how to use vivid examples to explain the meaning of the physical laws that he told us, his students, about.”

After graduating from high school in 1874, he studied mathematics and physics for three years at the University of Munich and a year at the University of Berlin. Physics was taught by Professor F. von Jolly. About him, as about others, Planck later said that he learned a lot from them and kept a grateful memory of them, “however, in a scientific sense, they were, in essence, limited people.” Max decided to complete his education at the University of Berlin. Although here he studied with such luminaries of science as Helmholtz and Kirchhoff, even here he did not receive complete satisfaction: he was upset that the luminaries gave lectures poorly, especially Helmholtz. He gained much more from becoming acquainted with the publications of these outstanding physicists. They contributed to the fact that Planck's scientific interests focused on thermodynamics for a long time.

Planck received his doctorate in 1879, having defended his dissertation at the University of Munich “On the second law of the mechanical theory of heat” - the second law of thermodynamics, which states that no continuous self-sustaining process can transfer heat from a colder body to a warmer one. A year later, he defended his dissertation “Equilibrium State of Isotropic Bodies at Different Temperatures,” which earned him the position of junior assistant at the Faculty of Physics at the University of Munich.

As the scientist recalled: “Having been a private assistant professor in Munich for many years, I waited in vain for an invitation to the professorship, for which, of course, there was little chance, since theoretical physics did not yet serve as a separate subject. All the more urgent was the need to somehow advance in the scientific world.

With this intention, I decided to develop the problem about the essence of energy, posed by the Göttingen Faculty of Philosophy for the prize for 1887. Even before the completion of this work, in the spring of 1885, I was invited as extraordinary professor of theoretical physics at the University of Kiel. This seemed like salvation to me; I considered the day when Ministerial Director Althof invited me to his Hotel Marienbad and informed me of the conditions in more detail the happiest day of my life. Although I led a carefree life in my parents’ house, I still strived for independence...

Soon I moved to Kiel; my Göttingen work was soon completed there and was crowned with a second prize.”

In 1888, Planck became an associate professor at the University of Berlin and director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics (the post of director was created specifically for him).

In 1896, Planck became interested in measurements carried out at the State Institute of Physics and Technology in Berlin. Experimental work on the study of the spectral distribution of “black body” radiation, carried out here, attracted the scientist’s attention to the problem of thermal radiation.

By that time, there were two formulas for describing “black body” radiation: one for the short-wave part of the spectrum (Wien’s formula), the other for the long-wave part (Rayleigh’s formula). The task was to dock them.

Researchers called the discrepancy between the theory of radiation and experiment an “ultraviolet catastrophe.” A discrepancy that could not be resolved. A contemporary of the “ultraviolet catastrophe,” physicist Lorentz, sadly noted: “The equations of classical physics were unable to explain why a dying furnace does not emit yellow rays along with radiation of long wavelengths...”

Planck succeeded in “sewing” the Wien and Rayleigh formulas and deducing a formula that completely accurately describes the spectrum of black body radiation.

Here is how the scientist himself writes about it:

“It was at that time that all outstanding physicists turned, both from the experimental and theoretical sides, to the problem of energy distribution in the normal spectrum. However, they were looking for it in the direction of representing the intensity of radiation in its dependence on temperature, while I suspected a deeper connection in the dependence of entropy on energy. Since the value of entropy had not yet found its due recognition, I was not at all worried about the method I was using and could freely and thoroughly carry out my calculations without fear of interference or advance from anyone.

Since the second derivative of its entropy with respect to its energy is of particular importance for the irreversibility of the exchange of energy between the oscillator and the radiation excited by it, I calculated the value of this quantity for the case that was then at the center of all interests of the Wien distribution of energy, and found a remarkable result that for this case, the reciprocal of such a value, which I have designated here as K, is proportional to the energy. This connection is so stunningly simple that for a long time I recognized it as completely general and worked on its theoretical justification. However, the instability of this understanding was soon revealed by the results of new measurements. It was precisely at the time that for small values ​​of energy, or for short waves, Wien’s law was perfectly confirmed, and subsequently, for large values ​​of energy, or for large waves, Lummer and Pringsheim first established a noticeable deviation, and those carried out by Rubens and F. Kurlbaum measurements with fluorspar and potassium salt revealed a completely different, but again simple relationship, that the value of K is proportional not to the energy, but to the square of the energy when going to higher values ​​of energy and wavelengths.

Thus, direct experiments established two simple boundaries for the function: for small energies, proportionality (of the first degree) to energy, for large ones - to the square of energy. It is clear that just as any principle of energy distribution gives a certain value of K, so every expression leads to a certain law of energy distribution, and we're talking about Now the question is to find an expression that would give the distribution of energy established by measurements. But now nothing was more natural than to compose for the general case a value in the form of a sum of two terms: one of the first degree, and the other of the second degree of energy, so that for low energies the first term will be decisive, for large ones - the second; At the same time, a new formula for radiation was found, which I proposed at a meeting of the Berlin Physical Society on October 19, 1900 and recommended for research.

Subsequent measurements also confirmed the radiation formula, namely, the more accurate the more subtle measurement methods were adopted. However, the measurement formula, if we assume its absolutely exact truth, was itself only a happily guessed law, having only a formal meaning.”

Planck established that light should be emitted and absorbed in portions, and the energy of each such portion is equal to the frequency of vibration multiplied by a special constant, called Planck's constant.

The scientist reports how persistently he tried to introduce the quantum of action into the system of classical theory: “But this value [the constant h] turned out to be obstinate and resisted all such attempts. As long as it can be considered infinitesimal, that is, at higher energies and longer periods, everything was in perfect order. But in general, here and there a gaping crack appeared, which became more noticeable the faster the vibrations were considered. The failure of all attempts to bridge this gap soon left no doubt that the quantum of action plays a fundamental role in atomic physics and that with its advent a new era in physical science began, for it contained something hitherto unheard of that was called upon radically transform our physical thinking, built on the concept of continuity of all causal connections since Leibniz and Newton created the infinitesimal calculus.”

W. Heisenberg conveys the well-known legend about Planck’s thoughts in the following way: “His son Erwin Planck recalled this time that he was walking with his father in Grunewald, that throughout the entire walk Planck excitedly and worriedly talked about the result of his research. He told him something like this: “Either what I am doing now is complete nonsense, or we are talking, perhaps, about the greatest discovery in physics since the time of Newton.”

On December 14, 1900, at a meeting of the German Physical Society, Planck delivered his historical report “Toward the Theory of Energy Distribution of Normal Spectrum Radiation.” He reported on his hypothesis and new radiation formula. The hypothesis introduced by Planck marked the birth of quantum theory, which made a true revolution in physics. Classical physics, as opposed to modern physics, now means “physics before Planck.”

The new theory included, in addition to Planck's constant, other fundamental quantities, such as the speed of light and a number known as Boltzmann's constant. In 1901, based on experimental data on black body radiation, Planck calculated the value of Boltzmann's constant and, using other known information, obtained Avogadro's number (the number of atoms in one mole of an element). Based on Avogadro's number, Planck was able to find the electric charge of an electron with the highest accuracy.

The position of quantum theory was strengthened in 1905, when Albert Einstein used the concept of a photon - a quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Two years later, Einstein further strengthened the position of quantum theory, using the concept of quantum to explain the mysterious discrepancies between theory and experimental measurements of the specific heat capacity of bodies. Further confirmation of Planck's theory came in 1913 from Bohr, who applied quantum theory to the structure of the atom.

In 1919, Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 "in recognition of his services to the development of physics through the discovery of energy quanta." As stated by A.G. Ekstrand, a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences at the award ceremony, "Planck's theory of radiation is the brightest of the guiding stars of modern physical research, and it will, as far as can be judged, be a long time before the treasures that have been obtained by his genius are exhausted." In his Nobel lecture in 1920, Planck summed up his work and admitted that “the introduction of the quantum has not yet led to the creation of a true quantum theory.”

Among his other achievements is, in particular, his proposed derivation of the Fokker-Planck equation, which describes the behavior of a system of particles under the influence of small random impulses.

In 1928, at the age of seventy, Planck entered into his mandatory formal retirement, but did not break ties with the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences, of which he became president in 1930. And on the threshold of the eighth decade, he continued his research activities.

After Hitler came to power in 1933, Planck repeatedly publicly spoke out in defense of Jewish scientists expelled from their posts and forced to emigrate. Subsequently, Planck became more reserved and remained silent, although the Nazis undoubtedly knew about his views. As a patriot who loved his homeland, he could only pray that the German nation would regain its normal life. He continued to serve in various German learned societies, in the hope of preserving at least some small part of German science and enlightenment from complete destruction.

Planck lived in the suburb of Berlin - Grunewald. His house, located next to a wonderful forest, was spacious, cozy, and everything had the stamp of noble simplicity on it. A huge, lovingly and thoughtfully selected library. A music room where the owner entertained big and small celebrities with his exquisite playing.

His first wife, née Maria Merck, whom he married in 1885, bore him two sons and two daughters, twins. Planck lived happily with her for more than twenty years. In 1909 she died. It was a blow from which the scientist could not recover for a long time.

Two years later he married his niece Marga von Hesslin, with whom he also had a son. But from then on, misfortunes haunted Planck. During the First World War, one of his sons died near Verdun, and in subsequent years both of his daughters died in childbirth. The second son from his first marriage was executed in 1944 for his participation in a failed plot against Hitler. The scientist's house and personal library were destroyed during an air raid on Berlin.

Planck's strength was undermined, and arthritis of the spine caused more and more suffering. For some time the scientist was in the university clinic, and then moved to one of his nieces.

Planck died in Göttingen on October 4, 1947, six months before his ninetieth birthday. Only his first and last name and the numerical value of Planck's constant are engraved on his tombstone.

In honor of his eightieth birthday, one of the minor planets was named Planckian, and after the end of World War II, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences was renamed the Max Planck Society.

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Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck(German: Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck) - great German physicist, one of the founders of quantum theory, foreign corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1913) and honorary member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1926). Introduced (1900) the quantum of action - Planck's constant and derived the law of radiation, named after him. Works on thermodynamics, theory of relativity, philosophy of natural science. Nobel Prize Laureate (1918).

Max Planck was born on April 28, 1858 in the family of a lawyer, professor of law at the University of Kiel Johann Julius Wilhelm von Planck and Emma Planck, née Patzig.

As a child, the boy learned to play the piano and organ, revealing extraordinary musical abilities. In 1867, the family moved to Munich, and there Max entered the Royal Maximilian Classical Gymnasium, where the excellent mathematics teacher G. Müller first awakened his interest in the natural and exact sciences.

After graduating from high school in 1874, Max Planck was going to study classical philology, tried his hand at musical composition, but then gave preference to physics.

After graduating from high school in 1874, M. Planck studied for three years at the University of Munich, where he received good mathematical training. But only after moving to the university in Berlin, where he studied for a year under the guidance of such outstanding physicists as Hermann Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff, his vocation was determined.

As Planck later wrote, this happened thanks to the study of their works, and not lectures (Helmholtz did not prepare properly for lectures and sometimes made mistakes at the blackboard, and Kirchhoff, although he prepared very carefully, read boringly and monotonously), as well as familiarity with publications German physicist Rudolf Clausius, one of the founders of thermodynamics and molecular kinetic theory. It was the work of Clausius that determined Planck's special passion for thermodynamics for many years.

In 1879, Max Planck defended his doctoral dissertation on the second law of thermodynamics, and a year later received the position of privatdozent at the University of Munich, and in 1885 he became a professor. In 1897, his book “Lectures on Thermodynamics” first appeared, which was subsequently reprinted many times and translated into many languages.

Next year Plank. wrote another paper on thermodynamics, which brought him a position as a junior assistant in the physics department at the University of Munich.

In 1900, after a long and persistent attempt to create a theory that would satisfactorily explain experimental data, Planck was able to derive a formula that agreed with the results of measurements with remarkable accuracy. However, to derive his formula, he had to introduce a radical concept that went against all established principles. The energy of Planck oscillators does not change continuously, as would follow from traditional physics, but can only take discrete values, increasing (or decreasing) in finite steps.

Each step in energy is equal to some constant, now called Planck's constant, multiplied by frequency. Discrete portions of energy were subsequently called quanta. The hypothesis introduced by Max Planck marked the birth of quantum theory, which made a genuine revolution in physics. Classical physics, as opposed to modern physics, now means "physics before Planck".

Max Planck was by no means a revolutionary, and neither he himself nor other physicists were aware of the deep meaning of the concept of “quantum”. For Planck, the quantum was just a means, which made it possible to derive a formula that gives satisfactory agreement with the black body radiation curve. He repeatedly tried to reach agreement within the classical tradition, but without success.

At the same time, Max Planck noted with pleasure the first successes of quantum theory, which followed almost immediately. His new theory included, in addition to Planck's constant, other fundamental quantities.

In 1901, based on experimental data on black body radiation, Planck calculated the value of Boltzmann's constant and, using other known information, obtained Avogadro's number(number of atoms in one mole of an element). Based on Avogadro's number, Planck was able to find the electric charge of an electron with remarkable accuracy..

Further confirmation of the potential power of Planck's innovation came in 1913 from Niels Bohr, who applied quantum theory to the structure of the atom. In Bohr's model, electrons in an atom could only be at certain energy levels determined by quantum limitations.

The transition of electrons from one level to another is accompanied by the release of an energy difference in the form of a photon of radiation with a frequency equal to the photon energy divided by Planck's constant. Thus, a quantum explanation was obtained for the characteristic spectra of radiation emitted by excited atoms.

In 1919 Max Planck was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 "in recognition of his services to the development of physics through the discovery of energy quanta." As stated by A.G. Ekstrand, Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, at the award ceremony, "Planck's Theory of Radiation - the brightest of the guiding stars of modern physics research, and, as far as can be judged, a lot of time will still pass before the treasures that were obtained by his genius dry up."

Planck's contribution to modern physics does not end with the discovery of the quantum and the constant that now bears his name. He was greatly impressed by Einstein's theory of special relativity, published in 1905. Planck's full support for the new theory greatly contributed to the acceptance of the special theory of relativity by physicists.

Max Planck's personal life was marked by tragedy. His first wife, née Maria Merck, whom he married in 1885 and who bore him two sons and two twin daughters, died in 1909. Two years later he married his niece Marga von Hesslin, with whom he he also had a son. Planck's eldest son died during the First World War, and in subsequent years both of his daughters died in childbirth. The second son from his first marriage was executed in 1944 for his participation in a failed plot against Hitler.

As a patriot who loved his homeland, Planck could only pray that the German nation would regain its normal life. He continued to serve in various German learned societies in the hope of preserving at least some small part of German science and enlightenment from complete destruction. After his home and personal library were destroyed in an air raid on Berlin, Planck and his wife sought refuge on the Rogetz estate near Magdeburg, where they found themselves caught between retreating German troops and advancing Allied forces. In the end, the Planck couple were discovered by American units and taken to the then safe state of Göttingen.

Max Planck died in Göttingen on October 4, 1947, six months before his 90th birthday. Only his first and last name and the famous formula are engraved on his tombstone E = hn - numerical value of Planck's constant.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Planck was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London (1928) and the Goethe Prize of Frankfurt am Main (1946). The German Physical Society named its highest award in his honor, the Planck Medal, and Planck himself was the first recipient of this honorary award. In honor of his 80th birthday, one of the minor planets was named Plankiana. Max Planck was a member of the German and Austrian Academies of Sciences, as well as scientific societies and academies in England, Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Hungary, Italy, Soviet Union, Sweden, Ukraine and the United States.

80 institutes bear the name of the outstanding German Max Planck, where with magnifying glasses, test tubes and flasks, thousands of scientists from all over the world struggle with the fundamental problems of existence. At the same time, they study the behavior of matter, discover asteroids, decipher DNA, and describe the singing of mice. And they receive worldwide recognition.

It is not surprising that in terms of the number of scientific research and advanced achievements, the German Society. Max Planck (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, MPG) has long been known as a factory of German scientific thought and competes with Stanford and Yale both in terms of citation index and in the number of publications in Science and Nature.

Planck's name is given to an asteroid (1069 Planckia), discovered by Max Wolf in 1927, as well as a crater on the Moon. In 2009, the Planck space telescope was launched, aimed at studying microwave relic radiation and solving other scientific problems. In 2013, a new species of organism, Pristionchus maxplancki, was named in honor of Max Planck.

German physicist Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck was born in Kiel (which then belonged to Prussia), in the family of Johann Julius Wilhelm von Planck, professor of civil law, and Emma (nee Patzig) Planck. As a child, the boy learned to play the piano and organ, revealing extraordinary musical abilities. In 1867, the family moved to Munich, and there P. entered the Royal Maximilian Classical Gymnasium, where an excellent mathematics teacher first aroused his interest in the natural and exact sciences. Upon graduating from high school in 1874, he planned to study classical philology, tried his hand at musical composition, but then gave preference to physics.

For three years P. studied mathematics and physics at the University of Munich and a year at the University of Berlin. One of his professors in Munich, experimental physicist Philipp von Jolly, turned out to be a bad prophet when he advised young P. to choose another profession, since, according to him, there was nothing fundamentally new left in physics that could be discovered. This point of view, widespread at that time, arose under the influence of the extraordinary successes of scientists in the 19th century. have achieved in increasing our knowledge of physical and chemical processes.

While in Berlin, P. acquired a broader view of physics thanks to the publications of outstanding physicists Hermann von Helmholtz and Gustav Kirchhoff, as well as articles by Rudolf Clausius. Familiarity with their works contributed to the fact that P.'s scientific interests focused for a long time on thermodynamics - a field of physics in which, on the basis of a small number of fundamental laws, the phenomena of heat, mechanical energy and energy conversion are studied. P. received his academic degree as a doctor in 1879, having defended a dissertation at the University of Munich on the second law of thermodynamics, which states that no continuous self-sustaining process can transfer heat from a colder body to a warmer one.

The next year, P. wrote another work on thermodynamics, which brought him the position of junior assistant at the Faculty of Physics at the University of Munich. In 1885 he became an associate professor at the University of Kiel, which strengthened his independence, strengthened his financial position and provided more time for scientific research. P.'s work on thermodynamics and its applications to physical chemistry and electrochemistry earned him international recognition. In 1888, he became an associate professor at the University of Berlin and director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics (the post of director was created specifically for him). He became a full (full) professor in 1892.

Since 1896, P. became interested in measurements made at the State Institute of Physics and Technology in Berlin, as well as in the problems of thermal radiation of bodies. Any body containing heat emits electromagnetic radiation. If the body is hot enough, then this radiation becomes visible. As the temperature rises, the body first becomes red-hot, then orange-yellow, and finally white. Radiation emits a mixture of frequencies (in the visible range, the frequency of radiation corresponds to color). However, the radiation of a body depends not only on temperature, but also to some extent on surface characteristics such as color and structure.

Physicists have adopted an imaginary absolute black body as an ideal standard for measurement and theoretical research. By definition, a completely black body is a body that absorbs all radiation incident on it and does not reflect anything. The radiation emitted by a black body depends only on its temperature. Although such an ideal body does not exist, a closed shell with a small opening (for example, a properly constructed oven whose walls and contents are in equilibrium at the same temperature) can serve as an approximation.

One of the proofs of the black-body characteristics of such a shell comes down to the following. Radiation incident on the hole enters the cavity and, reflecting from the walls, is partially reflected and partially absorbed. Since the probability that the radiation will come out through the hole as a result of numerous reflections is very small, it is almost completely absorbed. The radiation originating in the cavity and emerging from the hole is generally considered to be equivalent to the radiation emitted by a hole-sized area on the surface of a black body at the temperature of the cavity and shell. Preparing his own research, P. read Kirchhoff's work on the properties of such a shell with a hole. An accurate quantitative description of the observed distribution of radiation energy in this case is called the black body problem.

As blackbody experiments have shown, a graph of energy (brightness) versus frequency or wavelength is a characteristic curve. At low frequencies (long wavelengths), it is pressed against the frequency axis, then at some intermediate frequency it reaches a maximum (a peak with a rounded top), and then at higher frequencies (short wavelengths) it decreases. As the temperature increases, the curve retains its shape, but shifts toward higher frequencies. Empirical relationships have been established between temperature and the frequency of the peak in the black body radiation curve (Wien's displacement law, named after Wilhelm Wien) and between temperature and the total radiated energy (Stefan–Boltzmann law, named after the Austrian physicists Joseph Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann ), but no one was able to derive the black body radiation curve from the first principles known at the time.

Wien managed to obtain a semi-empirical formula that can be adjusted so that it describes the curve well at high frequencies, but incorrectly conveys its behavior at low frequencies. J. W. Strett (Lord Rayleigh) and the English physicist James Jeans applied the principle of equal distribution of energy among the frequencies of oscillators contained in the space of a black body, and came to another formula (the Rayleigh-Jeans formula). It reproduced the black body radiation curve well at low frequencies, but diverged from it at high frequencies.

P., under the influence of James Clerk Maxwell's theory of the electromagnetic nature of light (published in 1873 and confirmed experimentally by Heinrich Hertz in 1887), approached the black body problem from the point of view of the distribution of energy between elementary electrical oscillators, the physical form of which was not specified in any way. Although at first glance it may seem that the method he chose resembles the Rayleigh-Jeans conclusion, P. rejected some of the assumptions accepted by these scientists.

In 1900, after long and persistent attempts to create a theory that would satisfactorily explain the experimental data, P. managed to derive a formula that, as experimental physicists from the State Institute of Physics and Technology discovered, agreed with the measurement results with remarkable accuracy. Wien's and Stefan-Boltzmann's laws also followed from Planck's formula. However, to derive his formula, he had to introduce a radical concept that went against all established principles. The energy of Planck oscillators does not change continuously, as would follow from traditional physics, but can only take discrete values, increasing (or decreasing) in finite steps. Each energy step is equal to a certain constant (now called Planck's constant) multiplied by the frequency. Discrete portions of energy were subsequently called quanta. The hypothesis introduced by P. marked the birth of quantum theory, which accomplished a true revolution in physics. Classical physics, as opposed to modern physics, now means “physics before Planck.”

P. was by no means a revolutionary, and neither he himself nor other physicists were aware of the deep meaning of the concept of “quantum”. For P., the quantum was just a means that made it possible to derive a formula that gave satisfactory agreement with the radiation curve of an absolutely black body. He repeatedly tried to reach agreement within the classical tradition, but without success. At the same time, he noted with pleasure the first successes of quantum theory, which followed almost immediately. His new theory included, in addition to Planck's constant, other fundamental quantities, such as the speed of light and a number known as Boltzmann's constant. In 1901, based on experimental data on black body radiation, P. calculated the value of Boltzmann's constant and, using other known information, obtained Avogadro's number (the number of atoms in one mole of an element). Based on Avogadro's number, P. was able to find the electric charge of an electron with remarkable accuracy.

The position of quantum theory was strengthened in 1905, when Albert Einstein used the concept of a photon - a quantum of electromagnetic radiation - to explain the photoelectric effect (the emission of electrons from a metal surface illuminated by ultraviolet radiation). Einstein suggested that light has a dual nature: it can behave both as a wave (as all previous physics convinces us of) and as a particle (as evidenced by the photoelectric effect). In 1907, Einstein further strengthened the position of quantum theory by using the concept of quantum to explain the puzzling discrepancies between theoretical predictions and experimental measurements of the specific heat capacity of bodies - the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one unit of mass of a solid by one degree.

Another confirmation of the potential power of the innovation introduced by P. came in 1913 from Niels Bohr, who applied quantum theory to the structure of the atom. In Bohr's model, electrons in an atom could only be at certain energy levels determined by quantum limitations. The transition of electrons from one level to another is accompanied by the release of an energy difference in the form of a photon of radiation with a frequency equal to the photon energy divided by Planck's constant. Thus, a quantum explanation was obtained for the characteristic spectra of radiation emitted by excited atoms.

In 1919, P. was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1918 “in recognition of his services to the development of physics through the discovery of energy quanta.” As stated by A.G. Ekstrand, a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, at the award ceremony, “P.’s theory of radiation is the brightest of the guiding stars of modern physical research, and, as far as one can judge, it will still be a long time before the treasures that were obtained by his genius are exhausted.” . In the Nobel lecture given in 1920, P. summed up his work and admitted that “the introduction of quantum has not yet led to the creation of a true quantum theory.”

20s witnessed the development by Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, P.A.M. Dirac and others of quantum mechanics - equipped with the complex mathematical apparatus of quantum theory. P. did not like the new probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, and, like Einstein, he tried to reconcile predictions based only on the principle of probability with classical ideas of causality. His aspirations were not destined to come true: the probabilistic approach survived.

P.'s contribution to modern physics is not limited to the discovery of the quantum and the constant that now bears his name. He was strongly impressed by Einstein's special theory of relativity, published in 1905. The full support provided by P. to the new theory greatly contributed to the acceptance of the special theory of relativity by physicists. His other achievements include his proposed derivation of the Fokker–Planck equation, which describes the behavior of a system of particles under the influence of small random impulses (Adrian Fokker is a Dutch physicist who improved the method first used by Einstein to describe Brownian motion– chaotic zigzag movement of tiny particles suspended in a liquid). In 1928, at the age of seventy, Planck entered into mandatory formal retirement, but did not break ties with the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences, of which he became president in 1930. And on the threshold of his eighth decade, he continued his research activities.

P.'s personal life was marked by tragedy. His first wife, née Maria Merck, whom he married in 1885 and who bore him two sons and two twin daughters, died in 1909. Two years later he married his niece Marga von Hesslin, with whom he he also had a son. P.'s eldest son died in the first world war, and in subsequent years both of his daughters died in childbirth. The second son from his first marriage was executed in 1944 for his participation in a failed plot against Hitler.

As a person of established views and religious beliefs, and simply as a fair person, P., after Hitler came to power in 1933, publicly spoke out in defense of Jewish scientists expelled from their posts and forced to emigrate. At a scientific conference he greeted Einstein, who was anathema by the Nazis. When P., as president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences, paid an official visit to Hitler, he took this opportunity to try to stop the persecution of Jewish scientists. In response, Hitler launched into a tirade against Jews in general. Subsequently, P. became more reserved and remained silent, although the Nazis undoubtedly knew about his views.

As a patriot who loved his homeland, he could only pray that the German nation would regain its normal life. He continued to serve in various German learned societies in the hope of preserving at least some small part of German science and enlightenment from complete destruction. After his home and personal library were destroyed during an air raid on Berlin, P. and his wife tried to find refuge on the Rogetz estate near Magdeburg, where they found themselves between the retreating German troops and the advancing Allied forces. In the end, the Planck couple were discovered by American units and taken to the then safe state of Göttingen.

P. died in Göttingen on October 4, 1947, six months before his 90th birthday. Only his first and last name and the numerical value of Planck's constant are engraved on his tombstone.

Like Bohr and Einstein, P. was deeply interested in philosophical problems related to causality, ethics and free will, and spoke on these topics in print and before professional and lay audiences. Acting as a pastor (but without priesthood) in Berlin, P. was deeply convinced that science complements religion and teaches truthfulness and respect.

Throughout his life, P. carried with him the love of music that flared up in him in early childhood. An excellent pianist, he often played chamber works with his friend Einstein until he left Germany. P. was also a keen mountaineer and spent almost every holiday in the Alps.

In addition to the Nobel Prize, P. was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of London (1928) and the Goethe Prize of Frankfurt am Main (1946). The German Physical Society named its highest award in honor of him, the Planck Medal, and P. himself was the first recipient of this honorary award. In honor of his 80th birthday, one of the minor planets was named Planckian, and after the end of the Second World War, the Kaiser Wilhelm Society for Basic Sciences was renamed the Max Planck Society. P. was a member of the German and Austrian Academies of Sciences, as well as scientific societies and academies of England, Denmark, Ireland, Finland, Greece, the Netherlands, Hungary, Italy, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Ukraine and the United States.

General mechanics.

The reader is offered a book by an outstanding German scientist, Nobel laureate on the physics of Max Planck (1858-1947), which is a textbook on general mechanics.

The author considers a single material point, dividing all mechanics into two parts: the mechanics of a material point and the mechanics of a system of material points. The work is distinguished by the depth and clarity of presentation of the material and occupies an important place in the scientific heritage of the scientist.

Introduction to theoretical physics. Volume 2

Mechanics of deformable bodies.

This book, which examines the mechanics of an elastic deformable body, is a continuation of the course “General Mechanics” by the outstanding German physicist Max Planck.

The author, with usual skill, concisely and clearly introduces the reader to the range of research on the theory of elasticity, hydrodynamics and aerodynamics and the theory of vortex movements. In the minds of the reader of this book, the mechanics of deformable bodies should arise as a natural continuation of general mechanics, conditioned by internal necessity, and, above all, as a series of closely related, logically substantiated concepts. This will make it possible not only to study more detailed courses and specialized literature with full understanding, but also to carry out independent, more in-depth research.

Introduction to theoretical physics. Volume 3

Theory of electricity and magnetism.

This book, written by the outstanding German scientist, the founder of quantum mechanics Max Planck, contains a presentation of electrical and magnetic phenomena. The work is one of the monographs on the main branches of theoretical physics, which occupy an important place in Planck’s scientific heritage.

The material in the book is distinguished by its depth and clarity of description, thanks to which it has not lost its significance today.

Introduction to theoretical physics. Volume 4

Optics.

In the book of the outstanding German physicist Max Planck, much attention is paid to the systematic presentation and development of the main principles of theoretical optics, and their connections with other departments of physics are presented.

In the first two parts of the work, the author considers matter as a continuous medium with continuously changing properties. In the third part, when describing dispersion, an atomistic method of consideration is introduced. The author also outlines a natural transition to quantum mechanics based on classical theory with the help of an appropriate generalization.

Introduction to theoretical physics. Volume 5

Theory of heat.

This book is the fifth and final volume of Max Planck's Introduction to Theoretical Physics.

The first two parts of the work of the outstanding German physicist outline classical thermodynamics and the foundations of the theory of thermal conductivity. Moreover, thermal conductivity is considered by the author as the simplest example of irreversible processes. Thanks to this point of view, the transition from thermodynamics to the theory of thermal conductivity turns out to be clear and natural in Planck’s presentation.

The third part of the book is entirely devoted to the phenomena of thermal radiation. In further chapters, the author outlines the fundamentals of atomism and quantum theory, classical and quantum statistics.

Selected works

This edition of selected works of Max Planck, one of the founders of modern physics, includes articles on thermodynamics, statistical physics, quantum theory, special relativity, as well as general issues of physics and chemistry.

The book is of interest to physicists, chemists, historians of physics and chemistry.

Quantum theory. Revolution in microcosm

Max Planck was often called a revolutionary, although he was against it.

In 1900, the scientist put forward the idea that energy is not emitted continuously, but in the form of portions, or quanta. An echo of this hypothesis, which upended existing ideas, was the development of quantum mechanics - a discipline that, together with the theory of relativity, underlies the modern view of the Universe.

Quantum mechanics examines the microscopic world, and some of its postulates are so surprising that Planck himself admitted more than once that he could not keep up with the consequences of his discoveries. A teacher of teachers, he stood at the helm of German science for decades, managing to maintain a spark of intelligence during the dark period of Nazism.

Energy conservation principle

M. Planck’s book “The Principle of Conservation of Energy” is devoted to the history and justification of the law of conservation and transformation of energy, this most important law of nature for the justification of materialism.

On German the book was published four times; from the last edition (1921) and the present translation was made. The first part was translated by R.Ya. Steinman, the other two - S.G. Suvorov.

The translators did not want to deviate from the original style of the author when translating, but in some cases, when individual phrases of the original spread over an entire page, they were still forced to “lighten” this style.

Some of Planck's references to specific physical studies are already outdated. Therefore, in the 1908 edition, Planck made a number of additional comments. Such remarks, although not of a fundamental nature, could be multiplied somewhat. Planck left the third and fourth editions unchanged compared to the second. The translators also considered it possible to limit themselves to the author’s own additions to the second edition.

More significant is the absence in reissues of history of the law of conservation and transformation of energy over the past fifty years, which are very important for its development. The translators, of course, could not exhaust this story with individual remarks; it requires independent research beyond the scope of this work. However, some very significant aspects of the subsequent development of the law, namely, the struggle of various directions in physics around assessing the meaning of the law and its interpretation, are highlighted in the article by S.G. Suvorov. In it the reader will also find an assessment of M. Planck’s book.